Chapter 3 and 4 Summary

Chapters 3 and 4
First civilizations generated the most powerful societies thus far.
Human civilization gradually broke down due to catastrophes and economic declines, but civilization as a form of human existence proved very resilient.
Little fundamental changed took place in the structures and natures of civilizations.
Huge large- scale population growth took place in early civilizations, but it was more consistent and not as explosive, and because of this, population growth was not as fast as in paleolithic times.
Second wave civilizations have developed very clear notions of religion and philosophy.
Indian civilizations have pioneered the crystallization of sugar process.
Romans achieved much in construction engineering.
Chinese invented piston bellows, the draw-loom, silk-handling machinery, the wheelbarrow, a better harness for draft animals, the crossbow, iron casting, the iron-chain suspension bridge, gunpowder, firearms, the magnetic compass, paper, printing, and porcelain.
Women developed a sense of autonomy.
Empires developed later, these were large powerful states with coercive power.
Empires were quite powerful in terms of size and they developed unique military forces.
Empires imposed peace and security, which fostered economic and artistic development.
In 500 BC, the great Persian Empire developed, under Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Dynasty. This empire spanned from Egypt to India, and was home to a diversity of various peoples. It's king could only be approached through an elaborate ritual.
The Persian Empire maintained a system of governors known as satraps as well as a secret police network. This empire also possessed tax collectors, record keepers, administrators.
Greek civilization on the other hand possessed city states with various popular participation.
Smelting bronze, copper, silver, lead, iron, zinc required amounts of wood, this caused soil erosion.
In Greek civilization, free people as citizens could be involved in the affairs of state.
At the Battle of Marathon, the Greek armies have defeated the invading Persian Empire.
Later in 338 BC, King Philip of Macedonia was able to achieve political unification of Greece.
His son Alexander the Great was later able to conquer and destroy the Persian Empire.
Alexander's Empire later fell apart into Macedonian, Ptolemaic and Seleucid Kingdoms.
Rome originally began as a monarchy, but the king was thrown off, and a Roman Republic was established, that was lead by the patricians, which had controlled the senate.
Rome grew by defeating Carthage in the Punic Wars and later by conquering Greece.

Chapter 2 Summary

The desire to escape civilization has been present ever since civilization came into existence. Chinese philosophers of Daoism urged followers to abandon structured patterns of urban life and immerse themselves in patterns of natural order. Civilization became possible due to immense productivity of agricultural revolution. Civilization always been a global phenomenon.Over last 5000 years civilization became a unique human community. Sumer in Mesopotamia was among the first. Norte Chico in Peru was also a unique civilization. Also civilization in the Indus River in India/Pakistan also developed. Common patterns in civilizations were standard weights, measures, architectural styles. Central Asia was also a site of civilization. It took many generations to develop a civilization. Hierarchies of class were founded.

Earliest Human History- Chapter 1

For 95 percent of human existence, human beings survived by being hunter-gatherers. Berries, nuts, food, grain, scavenging bodies of dead animals and food of dead animals were the sources of survival. Stone was used in the paleolithic age, rather than iron tools. 12 thousand years ago began the deliberate cultivation of plants and animals. Of course, in the paleolithic era there was no organized writing system. So it is tough to know. Changes and development of agriculture was entirely a learned or cultural development. Homo sapiens emerged first in grasslands of eastern and southern africa. Humans began inhabiting deserts and forests at that time. Some 100 to 60 thousand years ago, humans began the trek to Eurasia and Australia, making the impossible feat of getting used to any environment, only with stone tools and hunting and gathering. Ice age lowered water levels, allowing the formation of land bridges. Migrations to east Asia began at this time. In Eastern parts of Europe figurines were made, and baskets, bone needles as well as pottery. 60 thousand years ago also massive migrations took place to Australia. Songs, dances and rituals developed as part of dreamtime rituals among first humans in Australia. Between 30 thousand and 15 thousand years ago, massive migrations took place to North America and to South America. Clovis culture of hunting mammoth developed in North America. 3500 years ago last great migrations took place in the Pacific, as humans crossed from island to island on boats and canoes. Pacific island migrations took place with livestock and domesticated plants. Paleolithic people created plenty of distinct societies, each with their own cultures. Paleolithic societies were far more egalitarian. Women were primary food gatherers, while the men tended to be the hunters. Violence between men and women, and with men and other men was also more prominent in this paleolithic society. Paleolithic people had a low life expectancy, but they had free time. And they lacked modern understanding of religion. But they did have part-time Shamans to communicate with the spirits using some drugs. Gobekli Tepe, a village in Anatolia in Turkey, shows how paleolithic people lived part-time in villages. Neolithic period took place with the agricultural revolution, as human beings began to grow certain plants and domesticate certain elements. Agricultural revolution however coincided with the last ice age. Ice age drove into extinction many animals paleolithic peoples have relied on. Digging stick or hoe played a key role in human society in early agriculture. Wheat, rice, barley, corn and sorghum supplied much of human life. Cereal grains of the Fertile Crescent were among the first to be grown. Agricultural societies develped the form of governance with a chieftain, who with gifts, blessings, religious ceremonies and charisma would organize society.

Chapter 1 Reading Summary:

Humans may have developed evolutionary to homo sapiens from chimpanzees and apes, about 5 to 6 millon years ago this may have occurred. Twenty or thirty different species of human emerged. Called hominids. Common feature was bipedalism. Over time brains or hominid species grew larger. Homo habilis was first able to develop stone tools. 250 thousand years ago emerged the homo sapiens. Homo sapiens spread out from Africa into Asia, Europe and Australia. During paleolithic era first massive migrations took place. In the paleolithic era, food gathering and hunting took place as the way of life. Homo sapiens colonized the world, each in their own environmental niche.
Humans were also able to migrate to North and South America through the Bearing Strait Land Bridge. 11 thousand years ago farming and animal husbandry has developed as a way of life. Civilization has developed from the farming communities and it was based on growing cities and formal states. AD meant "anno domini" or year of the lord. And BC means before Christ. This is how modern dating system is based.