Chapter 12 Summary

There are different interpretations of Columbus, some viewed him as a pirate or as a conqueror.
In 1892, Columbus was seen as a brave pioneer of progress and enlightenment.
Few people in 1492 could have imagined the large scale consequences of Columbus voyages.
There were other key historical events in the fifteenth century, such as fall of Constantinople.
Shapes of human communities at this time were rather diverse: bands of gatherer-hunters, villages of agricultural peoples, newly emerging chiefdoms or small states, nomadic communities and empires.
Paleolithic way of life remained in Australia and North America.
Australian paleolithic peoples have mastered and manipulated their environment.
A different kind of gathering and hunting took place in fifteenth century along North American coast.
European, Russian and Chinese Empire began to encompass paleolithic peoples.
Agricultural village societies existed such as Igbo and the Iroquois.
East of Niger River,  Igbo peoples lived with small states and urban centers.
Igbo lacked a king however, instead they relied on title societies, women's associations, hereditary ritual experts and balance of power among kingship groups.
Iroquois became agricultural, adopted maize and bean farming developed around 1300.
Increased level of conflict among Iroquois triggered remarkable political innovation, such as formation of confederation of five peoples. This ended tribal blood feuds and conflicts.
Pastoral peoples continued to exist in Central Asia and West Africa.
A Turkic warrior named Timur made an attempt to revive the Mongol Empire.
China managed to free itself from Mongol rule and Ming Dynasty China became a key power.
Ming Empire tried to purge all foreign religions and any signs of foreign rule.
Ming Empire had established a civil service examination system that had been neglected before.
Ming Empire restored millions of acres to cultivation.
Chinese sailors were present in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asia region.
Emperor Yongle initiated major expeditions during his rule but they ended later on after his death.
Europe underwent processes of state building during this time.
Europe had no political authority and they had to travel and explore each by themselves.