Chapter 23 Summary

Globalization of capitalism was clearly evident by the end of the XX century.
There were clear foundations on which the XX century globalization was built.
Many people see globalization as a natural, inevitable, practically unstoppable.
Bretton Woods System negotiated the rules for commercial and financial dealings.
NAFTA agreement between USA, Canada and Mexico was signed in 1994.
The World Trade Organization agreement was developed and created in 1995.
Kind of economic globalization taking shape from 1980s was widely known as neoliberalism.
Entire world was increasingly becoming almost like a single market.
USA and Britain have removed many earlier political controls on economic activity.
Reduction of tariffs, global movement of capital, mobile and temporary workforce.
WTO and IMF imposed free market and pro-business conditions on many poor countries.
Investment into poor countries when businesses sought to take advantage of cheap labor.
Transnational corporations produce goods and deliver services in many countries.
By 2000, 51 of the richest economies in the world were transnational corporations.
Growing inequality in the world due to globalization.

Chapter 22 Summary

Twentieth century witnessed the demise of many empires.
Collapse of Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires after WW1. Remaking of Russia into USSR.
U.S presence in Latin America was beginning to be questioned by nationalist governments.
Increasingly democratic ideals of the west threatened dictatorial nature of colonial rule.
World wars weakened Europe, discrediting any sense of European superiority.
Second and third generation of colonial elites had arisen in many countries.
Growing numbers of ordinary people were receptive of goal of liberation from colonialism.
Colonial rulers were planning for a new political relationship with their Asian and African subjects.
Writings of reforms, constitutions, elections was being planned by some of colonial rulers.
New leaders as independence dawned were Gandhi and Nehru, Sukarno and Ho Chi Minh.
Nationalist local leaders were preparing to pressure those who have dominated them.
Many local people joined guerrilla movements in Algeria, Kenya, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
Vietnam's anti-colonial struggle began in 1900s, but achieved full independence in 1970s.
In West Africa nationalists only relied on demonstrations, strikes, mass mobilization to win.
Many in India and Islamic world saw independence through prism of their religions.
Nationalist movements lead by communists in Vietnam sought social transformation.
Indians did not view themselves as united before XX century. Many peoples saw themselves in India through their own cultural identities that existed before hand. Family, castle, language, region, tribe.
British did not integrate their own cultural practices into Indian society.
Railroads, telegraph lines, services and schools bound India's many regions together.
Indian National Congress was established in the year 1885.
British promised Indians during WWI an improvement in self-governing institutions.
Mohandas Gandhi arrived at the Indian political scene.
Gandhi believed in a confrontational, though nonviolent, approach to political action.
Gandhi sought moral transformation of the individuals.
India became independent in 1947, but was divided into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan.

Chapter 21 Summary

Russian Communist Party was founded in 1898 by Vladimir Lenin.
Chinese Communist Party began in 1921.
Russian Revolution began in February 1917 following overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II.
Communism was an ambitious project to change the society.
Communist movements had an idea and a program of liberating and mobilizing women.
But in neither Soviet Union or China did undertake a direct attack on male domination.
Joseph Stalin sought to engage in industrialization and urbanization.
Chinese communist tended to have major support in the rural areas.
Communist pressures in Eastern Europe lead to redistribution of land.
Soviet Union managed to urbanize and industrialize relatively successfully.
Cold War was produced by growing rivalry between USA and USSR after World War II.

Chapter 20 Summary

Chinese and Russian revolutions were pivotal events in world history.
Large scale population explosion in world from 1950 to 2010.
Global spread of the corn and potatoes crops caused population explosion.
Global population increased fourfold in the twentieth century, despite brutal conflict.
Cascading rate of technological and scientific innovation took place as well.
World War I effectively caused the twentieth century as a new period of world history.
In early 20th century, Europeans had a feeling of self-confidence and pride.
Creation of Germany was a disruptive event for established powers such as Britain, France and Russia. Two major alliances formed of Triple Entente and Triple Alliance.
Outbreak of World War I was something of an accident but alliance network was it possible.
Rapid industrialization created an array of novel weapons such as tanks, airplanes, poison gas, machine guns and barbed wire.
Unprecedented casualties and suffering lead to widespread disillusionment with their civilization.
Collapse of German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires created a new map of Europe.
The war brought the United States of America into the field of global power.
Great Depression caused an unraveling of the traditional capitalist order.
Great Depression was caused by the stock market crash of 1929.
There was a collapse in commodity prices during the Great Depression.
Fascism emerged in much of Europe as an alternative to the system of communism.
Nazis used massive German unhappiness with the Weimar Republic and Treaty of Versailles to get into power. Great Depression in Germany had a very profound effect.
Nazis wanted to remove women from the paid workforce and were antifeminist.
Japan joined industrializing and empire building states in second half of XIX century.
Second World War began in Asia and only later in Europe in 1939.
War between Soviet Union and Germany between 1941 and 1945 broke the German Army.
War in Soviet Union was of unrelenting cruelty and harshness.
Soviet victory over Nazis gave much credibility to the Stalinist regime.
Marshall Plan lead to economic recovery of much of Western Europe.

Chapter 17 Summary

Industrial revolution was caused by the advancement of science and technology.
The French Revolution had destroyed the system of serfdom throughout other parts of Europe.
Growth of population spurred a greater desire to advance science and technology.
Huge jump in production abilities of humanity took place during this time.
Industry began in Europe due to the creative, freedom-loving culture.
European countries were also competitive and monarchs wanted new sources of revenue.
Merchant class also desired economic changes in European societies.
Competition from desirable, high quality and newly available Asian goods caused competition.
Development of the steam engine had a profound effect on human life.
Commerce and cross-cultural exchange sustained impressive technological changes.
Britain possessed a vast colonial empire throughout the world.
Europe's scientific innovation in Britain tended to encourage technological development.
Britain also had a very fluid and relatively free society.
Britain developed a highly advanced railroad network during a very early period.
Rapidly growing urban population sustained a demand for food.
Reform Bill of 1832 has broadened voting rights in Britain.
Both women and men in Britain could work in factories and produce goods.
However, industrial revolutions caused development of social protest ideologies such as Marxism.
Europeans migrated greatly to North America, South America, Asian Russia, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
American workers were more relatively conservative and they avoided Marxism.

Chapter 16 Summary

Between 1750 and 1914 a long nineteenth century of European domination.
Modern societies were able to exercise enormous power and influence over humankind.
European economic penetration,  military intervention, diplomatic pressure and missionary activity were able to infiltrate even the independent societies of China, Japan and Ottoman Empire.
Western Europe and North America were thrust into a dominant role in the world.
Most of Africa was colonized by European countries such as France, Britain, Belgium and Italy.
In the nineteenth century Europe wrote history and geography where Europe was center.
American author Swinton written that Aryan had played a leading part of world's progress.
History was seen as the race toward the finish line of modernity.
European rise in prominence occurred during the time of rebellion and resistance.
What was borrowed from Europe was often adapted to local circumstances.
Industrialization of Russia and Japan was quite important as well.
European domination moment emerged as a result of historical circumstances.
Haitian Revolution against slavery and French colonial rule was part of Atlantic revolutions.
American Revolution was triggered by British taxation, lack of representation and restrictions.
American Revolution did not seriously affect the property rights and was conservative.
French Revolution was the result of bankruptcy of the French Royal State.
French Revolution triggered further Chaos in Europe through Napoleonic Wars.
Haitian Revolution by Black slaves was lead by Toussaint L'Overture and Dessalines.
Spain lost it's Latin American colonies due to rebellions of several local elites and classes.
Bolivar and San Martin lead the wave of Latin American revolutions.
Slavery largely ended throughout the world in the nineteenth century in the Americas.
Nationalism became a powerful ideology throughout Europe.
Women in Western Europe and North America began to demand the right to vote.

Chapter 15 Summary

Spread of Christianity in modern era took place in Asian, African and Native American societies.
Riding currents of European expansion has Christianized Americas and the Philippines.
Science was a new and competing worldview and for some it became a new religion.
Europeans however did not act alone during the scientific cultural revolution of this time.
Christianity ceased being a purely European phenomenon at this time.
Protestant reformation under Luther, Zwingli, Calvin and Hus has fragmented Western Christianity.

Chapter 14 Summary

European empires in the Western Hemisphere are thought to be growing out of an accident.
Commerce joined empires as twin creators of global network during these centuries.
Vasco de Gama made an important voyage where he sailed to India from Portugal for first time.
Most immediate motivation was desire for tropical spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, pepper. These were widely used as condiments and preservatives.
Other products of East such as Chinese silk, Indian cottons, rhubarb, emeralds, rubies and sapphires.
European civilization generally recovered after the Black death of the 14th century.
Britain, Netherlands and Northern Italy were becoming centers of international commerce.
Eastern goods made their way to Europe through Muslim countries of the Middle East.
Many Europeans were persuaded that a Christian monarch ruled somewhere in Asia or Africa.
Few products of an economically less developed Europe were desirable in Eastern markets.
Muslim Egypt was key in the transfer of Eastern goods. But Italian city of Venice monopolized the trade networks. Circumventing these monopolies became very important.
Portuguese sailors under Vasco de Gama have sailed worlds away from what they have known.
Portuguese realized that with their heavy cannons they could dominate the trade in Indian Ocean.
Portuguese have monopolized the trading routes from Asia to Europe.
Portuguese however were often outnumbered by Asian traders and they often married Asian women.
Spain was first to challenge Portugal's position. Spanish realized they could conquer Philippines.
Philippines were close to China and Japan. Small scale military operations, gunpowder weapons, local alliances, gifts and favors to chiefs and Catholic missionary activity contributed to conquest of the Philippines by 1565. Philippines remained under Spanish rule until about 1898-1899.
Manila became a flourishing and culturally diverse city of more than 40 thousand people.
Dutch people developed a highly urbanized and advanced society at this time period.
British East India Company and Dutch East India Company received charters from their governments granting them trading monopolies and power to make war and govern peoples conquered.
Dutch also sought to control production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and rice.
Dutch established control in Indonesia and on the island of Taiwan.
British on the other hand wanted to control parts of India and control cotton trade there.
Slave trade was an important part of global commerce until the 19th century.
Slave trade across Atlantic was developed primarily for using slaves to grow sugarcane.

Chapter 13 Summary

World population more than doubled between 1400 and 1800.
Even though globalization of disease caused a global catastrophe however at same time.
Kings ruled most of Europe and male landowning aristocrats remained at the top of society.
Three centuries between 1450 and 1750 marked the modern era than continuing older civilizations.
Fortunes of Islam were now revived by the growing and relatively young Ottoman Empire.
Europeans were prominent on the world stage but did not hold always the leading role.
European Empires in the Americas have acquired a central role in world history.
Spanish Empire focused on construction and development in Caribbean and in South America.
Portuguese have established their holdings along the coasts of Brazil.
European countries such as Spain, Portugal, Britain and France turned out to be closer to Americas.
Alternating Monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean made traveling difficult.
European countries needed a larger base to support their economic expansion.
European states and trading companies enabled effective mobilization of human and material resources. They could cross the Atlantic, ironworking, gunpowder and horses were important.
Divisions in local societies gave Europeans allies. Part of Inca elite saw Spanish as liberators.
Native Americans lacked the immunity and domestic animals to fight smallpox and influenza.
The great dying of natives created an acute labor shortage and made room for immigrant newcomers.
Various combinations of indigenous, European and African peoples created new societies.
Horses, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep made ranching economies and cowboy culture.
American food stamps such as corn, potatoes and cassava spread widely in the Eastern Hemisphere.
Societies developed in American colonies drove the process of globalization.
Tea from China and coffee from Islamic world spread globally.
Triangular trading system between America, Europe and the Americas was founded.
Wealth of the colonies was precious metals, natural resources, new food crops, slave labor.
Spanish, Portuguese, British and French colonial empires developed mercantilism.
Spanish conquest of Aztec and Inca empires in early sixteenth century gave Spain access to most complex societies. Racial mixing in Spanish colonies also took place quite often.
Qing Empire had made China into a modern empire.

Chapter 12 Summary

There are different interpretations of Columbus, some viewed him as a pirate or as a conqueror.
In 1892, Columbus was seen as a brave pioneer of progress and enlightenment.
Few people in 1492 could have imagined the large scale consequences of Columbus voyages.
There were other key historical events in the fifteenth century, such as fall of Constantinople.
Shapes of human communities at this time were rather diverse: bands of gatherer-hunters, villages of agricultural peoples, newly emerging chiefdoms or small states, nomadic communities and empires.
Paleolithic way of life remained in Australia and North America.
Australian paleolithic peoples have mastered and manipulated their environment.
A different kind of gathering and hunting took place in fifteenth century along North American coast.
European, Russian and Chinese Empire began to encompass paleolithic peoples.
Agricultural village societies existed such as Igbo and the Iroquois.
East of Niger River,  Igbo peoples lived with small states and urban centers.
Igbo lacked a king however, instead they relied on title societies, women's associations, hereditary ritual experts and balance of power among kingship groups.
Iroquois became agricultural, adopted maize and bean farming developed around 1300.
Increased level of conflict among Iroquois triggered remarkable political innovation, such as formation of confederation of five peoples. This ended tribal blood feuds and conflicts.
Pastoral peoples continued to exist in Central Asia and West Africa.
A Turkic warrior named Timur made an attempt to revive the Mongol Empire.
China managed to free itself from Mongol rule and Ming Dynasty China became a key power.
Ming Empire tried to purge all foreign religions and any signs of foreign rule.
Ming Empire had established a civil service examination system that had been neglected before.
Ming Empire restored millions of acres to cultivation.
Chinese sailors were present in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asia region.
Emperor Yongle initiated major expeditions during his rule but they ended later on after his death.
Europe underwent processes of state building during this time.
Europe had no political authority and they had to travel and explore each by themselves.

Chapter 11: Pastoral Peoples on World Stage

Revolution of the Domestication of animals began 11,500 years ago.
Genghis Khan, a Mongol warlord, began construction of his powerful state.
Women were involved in the production of food and children.
Pastoral societies generally were far less productive.
6th and 10th centuries featured many Turkic Empires in Asia.
Moroccan Empires also were examples of successful nomadic empires.

Chapter 10: Christendom

Christianity enjoyed an Afro-Eurasian reach with flourishing communities.
African and Asian outposts declined however in later times.
Christianity for a while was an overwhelmingly European phenomenon.
In the East, Constantinople was the seat of Greek and Roman traditions of the Orthodox Church.
Western Christianity had converted many people slowly over time, but West was fragmented.
The Western Church lived in a far more rural society, and did not possess the splendor.
Christianity became a largely European phenomenon due to Islamic expansion.
Arab Muslims conquered vast amounts of territory from existing Christian states.
In Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt large Christian populations were tolerated by Islam.
Persian monks managed to spread Nestorian Christianity all the way to China.
Large scale conversion to Islam in North Africa largely ended Christian presence there.
Coptic Christians were sometimes considered heretics by the Eastern Roman Empire, but they were tolerated under Islamic rule as dhimmis and they had to pay a special tax.
In early 21st century, 10% of Egypt's population was still Coptic Christian.
Nubia and Ethiopia were also influenced by Coptic Christianity. In Nubia it vanished by 1500.
Ethiopian Christianity developed it's unique character with a fascination with Jerusalem and Judaism.
Byzantine Empire viewed itself as a continuation of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine Empire was a unique civilization centered in Constantinople.
After 1085 the Byzantine Empire shrank, once attacked by Normans, Crusaders and Turkic Muslims.
The Byzantine Emperor had the power to appoint the patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Main disagreements between Catholic and Orthodox were on the issue of the trinity, source of the Holy Spirit, original sin, importance of faith and reason. Catholics used unleavened bread, while the Orthodox tended to use bread leavened with yeast in communion. In 1054 schism occurred.
Orthodox Church converted Russians, Bulgarians and Serbs to the new faith.
Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, when Odoacer overthrew the last Roman Emperor.
Feudalism developed in western europe, and the Catholic Christian Pope gained more authority.
Western Europe had experienced large scale urban growth which given new opportunities.

Chapter 9- Islamic Civilization

Islamic civilization for a long time had a profound role in world affairs.
Islam spread from Arabia to parts of Europe, to North Africa, to Asia and to the Far East.
Islam decisively shaped the Afro-Eurasian world. Nomadic Arab tribes were given a central role.
In the 7th and 8th centuries Islam had made a huge expansion into the classical world.
Islam challenged and competed with Christianity, and also was transformed by African cultures.
Islam came from the Arabian Peninsula, where independent clans lived, they had their sheep and camels involved in seasonal migrations, each clan or tribe had blood feuds with one another.
There tribes and clans recognized a variety of gods, ancestors, nature spirits, valued bravery.
In scattered Oases, highlands of Yemen, interior mountain communities there was the practice of village-based agriculture. Arabia also stood in important trade routes, which connected Indian ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. This gave rise to cosmopolitan and commercial cities.
One of these important cities was Mecca. It was long distance to many trade routes, but was site of Kaaba, most important religious shrine in Arabia, which housed representations of 360 deities.
Mecca's dominant tribe was the Quraysh, which controlled access to Kaabe and it grew wealthy.
Arabia was on the periphery of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Persian Empire.
Many Jews, Christians and also Zoroastrians had resided in Arabia along with Arab tribes.
Some Arabs were already feeling that Allah/Yahweh is the only true god, others were idols.
Mohammed Ibn Abdullah (570-632) was born in Mecca to a Quraysh family.
Muhammed lost his parents, came under care of an uncle, and worked as a shepherd.
At age of 25, he married a wealthy widow of Khadija, who was a prosperous merchant.
Muhammad was a reflective man and was troubled by social inequalities and religious corruption.
Muhammad was experiencing revelations beginning in 610. These revelations became holy scriptures. The revelations were intended to be recited. Submission to Allah was primary obligation of believers. Submission involved creation of completely new society. Quran also demanded social justice with a special tax to the poor. Quran challenged the tribal nature of Arab society. Quran created the ummah, and removed tribal and clan divisions. Pillars of Islam were established, one is recognition of no god but allah and mohammed as his prophet, ritual prayer, almsgiving, fasting during Ramadan, and fifth requirement was the pilgrimage to Mecca. Muhammad threatened traditional order in Mecca, so he moved to Medina, which started the Islamic calendar. Muhammad won victories against Meccan opponents, so this attracted people to his cause. Muhammad was also a political leader. He eventually managed to succeed in purging Mecca of it's idols.
Islamic empire would soon expand very quickly and conquer large amounts of territory.
In the Battles of Yarmuk and Qadesiya and Nehavend, Muslims defeated Romans and Persians.

Chapter 8 Summary

China throughout history was a key world power. In world of third-wave civilizations, China created a world order favorable to itself in East Asia. Buddhism through trade took root in China. Collapse of Han dynasty in 220 created a period of political fragmentation in China. Northern nomads launched incursions into China. China was reunited under the Sui Dynasty briefly. This dynasty created an extension to the canal system. Tang and Song Dynasties established patterns of Chinese life which endured into the modern age. This was the "golden age" of arts, literature, ceramics. During Song Dynasty, there was a rise in Neo-Confucianism. They created six major ministries. Personnel, finance, army, justice and public works. There also was a censorate, which exercised surveillance over rest of the government. Tang Empire was based on the system of meritocracy. During Tang and Song dynasties, China had experienced a very rapid population growth. China in this time also developed a system of waterways, canals, rivers and lakes to supply it's cities. However, Song Dynasty China had much less freedom for it's women. Patriarchal restrictions on life of women began to grow. Raids by nomads made life much more difficult. Male behavior was described more an more by calligraphy, scholarship, painting and poetry. Foot binding tradition also developed during this time. Northern nomads were also drawn like a magnet to China. Nomadic tribes however often raided China and took tribute from it.

Chapter 7 Summary

This chapter primarily dealt with the development of trade and commerce since the ancient world. Coastlands, highlands, steppes and farmlands all generate very different products. Commerce had altered consumption and changed daily life. Incense for example became a very important product.
Trade generally diminished economic self-sufficiency of local societies. Trade also had capacity to transform political life. Trade also allowed for travel of ideas and technological innovations. One of key routes was the silk route. Eurasia gave place to the most extensive networks of trade in history. Chinese, Indian, Roman and Persian civilizations were beginning to be linked by pastoral peoples found on the borders of these civilizations. Various technological innovations, yokes, saddles, stirrups, camels, horses and oxen made travel across the silk route more effective. Goods traveling in silk routes made their way in large caravans. From China, goods such as silk, bamboo, mirrors, gunpowder, paper, rhubarb, ginger, lacquerware, chrysanthemums. Central Asia and Siberia were sources of furs, tusks, amber, livestock, horses, falcons, hides, copper, saddles. India was the source of cotton textiles, herbal medicine, precious stones, spices. From the Middle East came, dates, nuts, almonds, dried fruit. The Mediterranean basin was sources of gold coins, glassware, glazes, grapevines, jewelry, perfume, wool and linen textiles. Chinese women were responsible for every part of silk production. Silk since ancient times was an elitist symbol. Disease however often travelled along the silk route. Smallpox and measles did and it devastated empires. Bubonic plague also came to Europe through the silk route. Sea routes on the Indian ocean connected peoples in the Eastern hemisphere. Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans were traders on the Mediterranean Sea. However, Indian ocean trade was to be impeded by bad weather and monsoons. Birth of the Islamic religion in the Arabian peninsula and creation of an Arab Caliphate allowed for development of the islamic trade system. Also a trading system developed in the southeast Asia region. This trading system allowed for spread of Buddhism and Hinduism into Southeast Asia. East African civilization of swahili also experienced transformations due to changes in development of international trade. Islam allowed for linking of swahili with the outside world. Each swahili city was politically independent and they were involved in the gold trade, as well as exchange of Persian rugs, Indian cottons, Chinese porcelain. In North and South America there were many obstacles to development of trading routes.

Chapter 5 Summary

Confucianism was celebrated in China when thought China is still currently communist.
Buddhism and Christianity are growing quickly in China today.
In China, Confucius and Laozi founded classical Chinese philosophy.
In Persia, Zarathustrianism emered as a major religion.
In ancient Israel, Judaism emerged.  Isaiah emerged as a key prophet.
Plato, Socrates and Artistotle created traditions of rational humanist philosophy.
All these traditions of philosophy and religion emerged at about the same time.
Higher productivity, increase in frequency and deadliness of wars and development of iron caused growth of this philosophy.
Since 2000 thousand before the birth of Christ, emperor rule occurred due to idea of the mandate of heaven. Although the Chinese empire did collapse into smaller pieces.
Confucius was an intelligent and influential aristocrat.
According to Confucius the best people had outstanding character and intellect.
Taoism urged a retreat into the world of nature on the other hand.
Hinduism developed from the first Indian civilizations.
Central Buddhist teaching: life is suffering. Buddha as great teacher. Attainment of enlightenment.

Chapter 3 and 4 Summary

Chapters 3 and 4
First civilizations generated the most powerful societies thus far.
Human civilization gradually broke down due to catastrophes and economic declines, but civilization as a form of human existence proved very resilient.
Little fundamental changed took place in the structures and natures of civilizations.
Huge large- scale population growth took place in early civilizations, but it was more consistent and not as explosive, and because of this, population growth was not as fast as in paleolithic times.
Second wave civilizations have developed very clear notions of religion and philosophy.
Indian civilizations have pioneered the crystallization of sugar process.
Romans achieved much in construction engineering.
Chinese invented piston bellows, the draw-loom, silk-handling machinery, the wheelbarrow, a better harness for draft animals, the crossbow, iron casting, the iron-chain suspension bridge, gunpowder, firearms, the magnetic compass, paper, printing, and porcelain.
Women developed a sense of autonomy.
Empires developed later, these were large powerful states with coercive power.
Empires were quite powerful in terms of size and they developed unique military forces.
Empires imposed peace and security, which fostered economic and artistic development.
In 500 BC, the great Persian Empire developed, under Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Dynasty. This empire spanned from Egypt to India, and was home to a diversity of various peoples. It's king could only be approached through an elaborate ritual.
The Persian Empire maintained a system of governors known as satraps as well as a secret police network. This empire also possessed tax collectors, record keepers, administrators.
Greek civilization on the other hand possessed city states with various popular participation.
Smelting bronze, copper, silver, lead, iron, zinc required amounts of wood, this caused soil erosion.
In Greek civilization, free people as citizens could be involved in the affairs of state.
At the Battle of Marathon, the Greek armies have defeated the invading Persian Empire.
Later in 338 BC, King Philip of Macedonia was able to achieve political unification of Greece.
His son Alexander the Great was later able to conquer and destroy the Persian Empire.
Alexander's Empire later fell apart into Macedonian, Ptolemaic and Seleucid Kingdoms.
Rome originally began as a monarchy, but the king was thrown off, and a Roman Republic was established, that was lead by the patricians, which had controlled the senate.
Rome grew by defeating Carthage in the Punic Wars and later by conquering Greece.

Chapter 2 Summary

The desire to escape civilization has been present ever since civilization came into existence. Chinese philosophers of Daoism urged followers to abandon structured patterns of urban life and immerse themselves in patterns of natural order. Civilization became possible due to immense productivity of agricultural revolution. Civilization always been a global phenomenon.Over last 5000 years civilization became a unique human community. Sumer in Mesopotamia was among the first. Norte Chico in Peru was also a unique civilization. Also civilization in the Indus River in India/Pakistan also developed. Common patterns in civilizations were standard weights, measures, architectural styles. Central Asia was also a site of civilization. It took many generations to develop a civilization. Hierarchies of class were founded.

Earliest Human History- Chapter 1

For 95 percent of human existence, human beings survived by being hunter-gatherers. Berries, nuts, food, grain, scavenging bodies of dead animals and food of dead animals were the sources of survival. Stone was used in the paleolithic age, rather than iron tools. 12 thousand years ago began the deliberate cultivation of plants and animals. Of course, in the paleolithic era there was no organized writing system. So it is tough to know. Changes and development of agriculture was entirely a learned or cultural development. Homo sapiens emerged first in grasslands of eastern and southern africa. Humans began inhabiting deserts and forests at that time. Some 100 to 60 thousand years ago, humans began the trek to Eurasia and Australia, making the impossible feat of getting used to any environment, only with stone tools and hunting and gathering. Ice age lowered water levels, allowing the formation of land bridges. Migrations to east Asia began at this time. In Eastern parts of Europe figurines were made, and baskets, bone needles as well as pottery. 60 thousand years ago also massive migrations took place to Australia. Songs, dances and rituals developed as part of dreamtime rituals among first humans in Australia. Between 30 thousand and 15 thousand years ago, massive migrations took place to North America and to South America. Clovis culture of hunting mammoth developed in North America. 3500 years ago last great migrations took place in the Pacific, as humans crossed from island to island on boats and canoes. Pacific island migrations took place with livestock and domesticated plants. Paleolithic people created plenty of distinct societies, each with their own cultures. Paleolithic societies were far more egalitarian. Women were primary food gatherers, while the men tended to be the hunters. Violence between men and women, and with men and other men was also more prominent in this paleolithic society. Paleolithic people had a low life expectancy, but they had free time. And they lacked modern understanding of religion. But they did have part-time Shamans to communicate with the spirits using some drugs. Gobekli Tepe, a village in Anatolia in Turkey, shows how paleolithic people lived part-time in villages. Neolithic period took place with the agricultural revolution, as human beings began to grow certain plants and domesticate certain elements. Agricultural revolution however coincided with the last ice age. Ice age drove into extinction many animals paleolithic peoples have relied on. Digging stick or hoe played a key role in human society in early agriculture. Wheat, rice, barley, corn and sorghum supplied much of human life. Cereal grains of the Fertile Crescent were among the first to be grown. Agricultural societies develped the form of governance with a chieftain, who with gifts, blessings, religious ceremonies and charisma would organize society.

Chapter 1 Reading Summary:

Humans may have developed evolutionary to homo sapiens from chimpanzees and apes, about 5 to 6 millon years ago this may have occurred. Twenty or thirty different species of human emerged. Called hominids. Common feature was bipedalism. Over time brains or hominid species grew larger. Homo habilis was first able to develop stone tools. 250 thousand years ago emerged the homo sapiens. Homo sapiens spread out from Africa into Asia, Europe and Australia. During paleolithic era first massive migrations took place. In the paleolithic era, food gathering and hunting took place as the way of life. Homo sapiens colonized the world, each in their own environmental niche.
Humans were also able to migrate to North and South America through the Bearing Strait Land Bridge. 11 thousand years ago farming and animal husbandry has developed as a way of life. Civilization has developed from the farming communities and it was based on growing cities and formal states. AD meant "anno domini" or year of the lord. And BC means before Christ. This is how modern dating system is based.